RNA Polymerase
Bacterial infections remain among the most common and deadly causes of human disease. Infectious diseases are the third leading cause of death in the United States and the leading cause of death worldwide (Binder et al. (1999) Science 284, 1311-1313). Multi-drug-resistant bacteria now cause infections that pose a grave and growing threat to public health. It has been shown that bacterial pathogens can acquire resistance to first-line and even second-line antibiotics (Stuart B. Levy, The Challenge of Antibiotic Resistance, in Scientific American, 46-53 (March, 1998); Walsh, C. (2000) Nature 406, 775-781; Schluger, N. (2000) Int. J. Tuberculosis Lung Disease 4, S71-S75; Raviglione et al., (2001) Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 953, 88-97). New approaches to drug development are necessary to combat the ever-increasing number of antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
RNA polymerase (RNAP) is the molecular machine responsible for transcription and is the target, directly or indirectly, of most regulation of gene expression (Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-698; Darst, S. (2001) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 11, 155-162; Cramer, P. (2002) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 12, 89-97; Murakami & Darst (2003) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 13, 31-39; Borukhov & Nudler (2003) Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6, 93-100; Landick, R. (2001) Cell 105, 567-570; Korzheva & Mustaev (2001) Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 4, 119-125; Armache, et al. (2005) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 15, 197-203; Woychik & Hampsey (2002); Cell 108, 453-463; Asturias, F. (2004) Curr. Opin. Genet Dev. 14, 121-129; Cramer, P. (2004) Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 14, 218-226; Geiduschek & Kassayetis (2001) J. Mol. Biol. 310, 1-26). Bacterial RNAP core enzyme has a molecular mass of ˜380,000 Da and consists of one β′ subunit, one β subunit, two α subunits, and one ω subunit; bacterial RNAP holoenzyme has a molecular mass of ˜450,000 Da and consists of bacterial RNAP core enzyme in complex with the transcription initiation factor σ (Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-698; Darst, S. (2001) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 11, 155-162; Cramer, P. (2002) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 12, 89-97; Murakami & Darst (2003) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 13, 31-39; Borukhov & Nudler (2003) Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 6, 93-100). Bacterial RNAP core subunit sequences from Gram-negative bacterial species, Gram-postive bacterial species, and Thermococcus-Deinococcus-clade bacterial species exhibit moderate amino acid sequence conservation (Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-698; Darst, S. (2001) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 11, 155-162; Iyer, et al. (2004) Gene 335, 73-88). Eukaryotic RNAP I, RNAP II, and RNAP III contain counterparts of all bacterial RNAP core subunits, but eukaryotic-subunit sequences and bacterial-subunit sequences exhibit only limited amino acid sequence conservation (Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-698; Darst, S. (2001) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 11, 155-162; Cramer, P. (2002) Curr. Opin. Structl. Biol. 12, 89-97).
Crystallographic structures have been determined for bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP II (Zhang et al., (1999) Cell 98, 811-824; Cramer et al., (2000) Science 288, 640-649; Naryshkin et al., (2000) Cell 101, 601-611; Kim et al., (2000) Science 288, 1418-1421; Korzheva et al., (2000) Science 289, 619-625; Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-689; Cramer et al., (2001) Science 292, 1863-1876; Gnatt et al., (2001) Science 292, 1876-1882; Mekler et al., (2002) Cell 108, 599-614; Murakami et al., (2002) Science 296, 1280-1284; Murakami et al., (2002) Science 296, 1285-1290; Vassylyev et al., (2002) Nature 417, 712-719; Bushnell et al., (2004) Science 303, 983-988; Westover et al., (2004) Science 303, 1014-1016; Armache, et al., (2003) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100, 6964-6968). Moreover, cryo-EM structures have been determined for bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP I (Opalka, et al. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. ScL USA 97, 617-622; Darst, et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 4296-4301; DeCarlo, et al. (2003) J. Mol. Biol. 329, 891-902).
Structures also have been determined for RNAP complexes with nucleic acids, nucleotides and inhibitors (Campbell, et al. (2001) Cell 104, 901-912; Artsimovitch, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 351-363; Campbell, et al. (2005) EMBO J. 24, 674-682; Artsimovitch, et al. (2004) Cell 117, 299-310; Tuske, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 541-522; Temiaov, et al. (2005) Mol. Cell 19, 655-666; Vassulyev, et al. (2005) Nature Structl. Biol. 12, 1086-1093; Gnatt, et al. (2001) Science 292, 1876-1882; Westover, et al. (2004a) Science 303, 1014-1016; Westover, et al. (2004b) Cell 119, 481-489; Ketenberger, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 16, 955-965; Bushnell, et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 99, 1218-1222; Kettenberger, et al. (2005) Natl. Structl. Mol. Biol. 13, 44-48).
The structures reveal that RNAP-bacterial or eukaryotic—has a shape reminiscent of a crab claw. The two “pincers” of the “claw” define the active-center cleft that can accommodate a double-stranded nucleic acid-and which has the active-center Mg2+ at its base. The largest subunit (β′ in bacterial RNAP) makes up one pincer, termed the “clamp,” and part of the base of the active-center cleft. The second-largest subunit (β in bacterial RNAP) makes up the other pincer and part of the base of the active-center cleft.
Based on crystallographic structures for bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP biophysical results, and biochemical results, models have been proposed for the structures of transcription initiation and elongation complexes (Gnatt et al., (2001) Science 292, 1876-1882; Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-689; Naryshkin et al., (2000 Cell 101, 601-611; Kim et al., (2000) Science 288, 1418-1421; Korzheva et al., (2000) Science 289, 619-625; and Mekler et al., (2002) Cell 108:599-614).
Bacterial RNAP is a proven target for antibacterial therapy (Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S. (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162). The suitability of bacterial RNAP as a target for antibacterial therapy follows from the fact that bacterial RNAP is an essential enzyme (permitting efficacy), the fact that bacterial RNAP subunit sequences are conserved (providing a basis for broad-spectrum activity), and the fact that bacterial RNAP subunit sequences are only weakly conserved in eukaryotic RNAP I, RNAP II, and RNAP III (providing a basis for therapeutic selectivity).
The rifamycin antibacterial agents—notably rifampicin, rifapentine, and rifabutin—function by binding to and inhibiting bacterial RNAP (Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S. (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162; Floss & Yu (2005) Chem. Rev. 105, 621-632; Campbell, et al. (2001) Cell 104, 901-912; Artsimovitch, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 351-363). The rifamycins bind to a site on bacterial RNAP adjacent to the RNAP active center and sterically and/or allosterically prevent extension of RNA chains beyond a length of 2-3 nt (Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S. (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162; Floss & Yu (2005) Chem. Rev. 105, 621-632; Campbell, et al. (2001) Cell 104, 901-912; Artsimovitch, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 351-363).
The rifamycins are in current clinical use in treatment of Gram-negative and 1.0 Gram-positive bacterial infections (Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S. (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162; Floss & Yu (2005) Chem. Rev. 105, 621-632; Campbell, et al. (2001) Cell 104, 901-912; Artsimovitch, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 351-363). The rifamycins are of particular importance in treatment of tuberculosis; the rifamycins are first-line anti-tuberculosis agents and are the only anti-tuberculosis agents able rapidly to clear infection and prevent relapse (Mitchison, D. (2000) Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 4, 796-806). The rifamycins also are of importance in treatment of bacterial infections relevant to biowarfare or bioterrorism; combination therapy with ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, and rifampicin was successful in treatment of inhalational anthrax following the 2001 anthrax attacks (Mayer, et al. (2001) JAMA 286, 2549-2553), and combination therapy with ciprofloxacin and rifampicin, or doxycycline with rifampicin, is recommended for treatment of future cases of inhalational anthrax (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2001) JAMA 286, 2226-2232).
The clinical utility of the rifamycin antibacterial agents is threatened by the existence of bacterial strains resistant to known rifamycins (Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S. (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162; Floss & Yu (2005) Chem. Rev. 105, 621-632; Campbell, et al. (2001) Cell 104, 901-912; Artsimovitch, et al. (2005) Cell 122, 351-363). Resistance to rifamycins typically involves substitution of residues in or immediately adjacent to the rifamycin binding site on bacterial RNAP—i.e., substitutions that directly decrease binding or function of rifamycins. A significant and increasing percentage of cases of tuberculosis are resistant to rifampicin (1.4% of new cases, 8.7% of previously treated cases, and 100% of cases designated multidrug-resistant, in 1999-2002; Schluger, N. (2000) Int. J. Tuberc. Lung Dis. 4, S71-S75; Raviglione, et al. (2001) Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 953, 88-97; Zumia, et al. (2001) Lancet Infect. Dis. 1, 199-202; Dye, et al. (2002) J. Infect. Dis. 185, 1197-1202; WHO/IUATLD (2003) Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance in the world: third global report (WHO, Geneva)). Strains of bacterial bioweapons agents resistant to rifampicin can be, and have been, constructed (Lebedeva, et al. (1991) Antibiot. Khimioter. 36, 19-22; Pomerantsev, et al. (1993) Antibiot. Khimioter. 38, 34-38; Volger, et al. (2002) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 46, 511-513; Marianelli, et al. (204) J. Clin. Microbiol. 42, 5439-5443).
In view of the public-health threat posed by rifamycin-resistant bacterial infections, there is an urgent need for new antibacterial agents that (i) target bacterial RNAP (and thus have the same biochemical effects as rifamycins), but that (ii) target sites within bacterial RNAP distinct from the rifamycin binding site (and thus do not show cross-resistance with rifamycins). (See Chopra, et al. (2002) J. Appl. Microbiol. 92, 4S-15S; Darst, S (2004) Trends Biochem. Sci. 29, 159-162.)
RNA Polymerase Secondary Channel
Crystallographic structures have been determined for bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP II (Zhang et al., (1999) Cell 98, 811-824; Cramer et al., (2000) Science 288, 640-649; Cramer et al., (2001) Science 292, 1863-1876; Gnatt et al., (2001 Science 292, 1876-1882; and Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-689), and, based on the crystallographic structures, biophysical results, and biochemical results, models have been proposed for the structures of transcription initiation and elongation complexes (Gnatt et al., (2001 Science 292, 1876-1882; Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-689; Naryshkin et al., (2000 Cell 101, 601-611; Kim et al., (2000) Science 288, 1418-1421; Korzheva et al., (2000) Science 289, 619-625; and Mekler et al., (2002) Cell 108:599-614).
The models for the transcription elongation complex imply that nucleic acids completely fill the active-center cleft of RNAP, and thus the only route by which incoming nucleoside-triphosphate substrates (“NTPs”) can access the active center is through a ˜25 Å long, ˜10 Å wide tunnel—the “secondary channel,” “pore,” “nucleotide-uptake channel,” or “nucleotide-entrance channel,”—that bores through the floor of the active-center cleft of RNAP and extends to the exterior surface of RNAP opposite the active-center cleft (Gnatt et al., (2001) Science 292, 1876-1882; Ebright, R. (2000) J. Mol. Biol. 304, 687-689; and Korzheva et al., (2000) Science 289, 619-625).
The models for the transcription elongation complex imply that the RNAP secondary channel mediates multiple biochemical activities important for function of RNAP, including: uptake of NTPs, release of pyrophosphate product, release of abortive-RNA and edited-RNA products, interaction with RNA product during transcriptional pausing, interaction with RNA product during transcriptional arrest, interaction with RNA product during editing, and interaction with the elongation factors GreA and GreB.
Physically blocking the RNAP secondary channel with a small molecule can inhibit one or more of these activities and thereby can inhibit function of RNAP (WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762). For example, physically blocking the RNAP secondary channel with a small molecule can prevent uptake of NTPs by RNAP and thus can prevent transcription (WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762).
A region within the RNAP secondary channel—a region that comprises amino acids 736-747 and 779-781 of the RNAP β′ subunit in RNAP from Escherichia coli—is a useful target for compounds that inhibit transcription, including, by way of example, the lariat peptide microcin J25 (MccJ25) and derivatives thereof (WO 2004/023093; FIG. 1). This region includes residues that are conserved in RNAP from bacterial species, but that are not conserved, and indeed are radically different, in RNAP from eukaryotic species (FIG. 1). This region forms a ˜5 Å shallow pocket within the wall of the RNAP secondary channel (FIG. 2). A compound that binds to this region of a bacterial RNAP can physically block the secondary channel of a bacterial RNAP, can prevent uptake of NTPs by a bacterial RNAP, can inhibit bacterial transcription, can inhibit bacterial gene expression, and can inhibit bacterial growth.
The secondary-channel region referred to above in RNAP from Escherichia coli is similar in amino acid sequence in RNAP from other species of bacteria and is called herein the “bacterial RNAP homologous secondary channel amino acid sequence” (FIG. 1). (For example, amino acid residues 736-747 and 779-781 of the β′ subunit of RNAP from Escherichia coli are similar to amino acid residues 740-751 and 783-785 of the β′ subunit of RNAP from Bacillus subtilis (FIG. 1). Thus, a molecule that binds to this region and inhibits an activity associated with the secondary channel in RNAP from Escherichia coli also may bind to this region and inhibit an activity associated with the secondary channel in RNAP from other species of bacteria. Therefore, molecules found to have antibacterial activity (through binding to this region and inhibiting an activity associated with the secondary channel) against Escherichia coli also may be found to have antibacterial activity against other species of bacteria.
In contrast, the secondary-channel region referred to above differs radically in amino acid sequence between bacterial RNAP and eukaryotic RNAP, including human RNAP I, human RNAP II, and human RNAP III (FIG. 1). This allows for identification of molecules that bind, in a secondary-channel-region-dependent fashion, to a bacterial RNAP, but that do not bind, or that bind substantially less well, to a eukaryotic RNAP. This also allows for identification of molecules that inhibit, in a secondary-channel region-dependent fashion, an activity of a bacterial RNAP, but that do not inhibit, or that inhibit substantially less well, an activity of a eukaryotic RNAP. This differentiation is important, because it permits the identification of bacterial-RNAP-selective binding molecules and bacteria-selective inhibitors.
In the three-dimensional structure of a bacterial RNAP, the secondary-channel region referred to above is located near to, but does not overlap, the rifamycin binding site (FIG. 3). The distance between the center of the secondary-channel region referred to above and the center of the rifamycin binding pocket is ˜25 Å.
The invention provides, by way of example only, a bacterial RNAP homologous secondary channel amino acid sequence corresponding to, and alignable with, residues 736-747 and 779-781 of the β′ subunit of RNAP from Escherichia coli, as well as with corresponding residues of the β′ subunit of Bacillus subtilis, Haemophilus influenzae, Vibrio cholerae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Treponema pallidum, Borrelia burgdorferi, Xyella fastidiosa, Campylobacter jejuni, Neisseria meningitidis, Rickettsia prowazekii, Thermotoga maritima, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Synechocystis sp., Aquifex aeolicus, Deinococcus radiodurans, Thermus thermophilus, and Thermus aquaticus. 
Ligands that bind to the secondary channel of, and inhibit an activity of, a bacterial RNAP are known in the art. Such ligands include, for example, the lariat-peptide microcin J25 (MccJ25)(WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762; Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483), substituted derivatives of the lariat-peptide MccJ25 (WO 2004/023093; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006; Mukhopadhyay, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751), and minimized derivatives of lariat-peptide MccJ25 (WO2005/024040; Semenova, et al. (2005) J. Bacteria 187:3859-3863). The references cited above are incorporated herein in their entirety.
Lariat-Peptide MccJ25
The antibacterial peptide microcin J25 (MccJ25) inhibits bacterial RNAP by binding within, and obstructing, the secondary channel of bacterial RNAP (WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762). MccJ25 has the sequence (Sequence ID NO. 1): Gly1-Gly2-Ala3-Gly4-His5-Pro6-Val7-Glu8-Tyr9-Phe10-Val11-Gly12-Ile13-Gly14-Thr15-Pro16-Ile17-Ser18-Phe19-Tyr20-Gly21 cyclic(8→1) peptide (Bayro, et at. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483; FIG. 4, line 1).
MccJ25 has an unusual “lariat-peptide” covalent structure (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483; FIG. 4, line 1). MccJ25 is 21 amino acids in length and consists of an 8-residue cyclic segment—with a backbone-sidechain amide linkage between the backbone nitrogen atom of residue Gly1 and the side-chain carboxyl group of Glu8—followed by a 13-residue linear segment.
MccJ25 further has an unusual “lariat-protoknot” three-dimensional structure (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483; FIG. 5). In the three-dimensional structure of MccJ25, the linear segment of the lariat loops back and penetrates and threads through the cycle of the lariat, essentially as a thread through the eye of a needle. The linear segment is irreversibly locked in place and trapped within the cycle by steric constraints imposed by the aromatic sidechains of Phe19 and Tyr20, which bracket the cycle, with the aromatic sidechain of Phe19 being on located on one face of the cycle and the aromatic sidechain of Tyr20 being located on the other face of the cycle.
The lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot structure of MccJ25, with irreversible trapping of the linear segment of the lariat within the cycle of the lariat, results in exceptional resistance to denaturation (complete resistance to tested thermal and chemical denaturants; Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483) and exceptional resistance to proteolysis (complete resistance to tested mesophilic endo- and exopeptidease; Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483).
The lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot structure of MccJ25 is generated by a MccJ25-specific biosynthetic system. MccJ25 is produced by bacterial strains harboring a plasmid-borne lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette, consisting of a gene for MccJ25 precursor, two genes for factors that process McJ25 precursor into mature MccJ25, and one gene for a factor that exports MccJ25 from the cell (Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662). The gene names and functions are as follows:
mcjA; encodes the MccJ25 precursor (McjA)
mcjB; encodes a MccJ25 processing factor (McjB)
mcjB; encodes a MccJ25 processing factor (McjC)
mcjD; encodes a MccJ25 export factor (McjD)
The MccJ25 precursor is a 58-residue peptide consisting of a 37-residue N-terminal pro-sequence (residues numbered as −37 to −1) and a 21-residue C-terminal segment having the same amino acid sequence as mature MccJ25 (residues numbered as 1 to 21) (Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662).
Processing of the MccJ25 precursor to yield mature MccJ25 entails two reactions: (1) cleavage of the backbone-backbone amide linkage between residue −1 and residue 1, resulting in removal of the 37-residue N-terminal pro-sequence; and (2) formation of a backbone-sidechain amide linkage between the backbone nitrogen atom of residue 1 and the sidechain carboxyl of residue 8, resulting in cyclization of residues 1-8 and entrapment of residues 9-21 (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483). The MccJ25 processing factor McjC exhibits amino acid sequence similarity to amidotransferases of the Asn-synthase/Gln-hydrolase class, which catalyze transfer of ammonia or an amine from an amide donor to a carboxyl acceptor (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383). It has been proposed that McjC participates in both reactions in processing of the MccJ25 precursor to yield mature MccJ25, acting on pre-folded MccJ25 precursor to catalyze transfer of the backbone nitrogen atom, also known as the α-amino group, of residue 1 from the backbone amide linkage between residue −1 and residue 1 to the sidechain carboxyl of residue 8 (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383).
It has not been possible to date to re-create the lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot structure of MccJ25 without use of the above-described MccJ25-specific biosynthetic system. Attempted chemical synthesis of MccJ25 yields a product having a lariat-peptide covalent structure but not having a lariat-protoknot three-dimensional structure (i.e., not having the linear segment of the lariat looped back and penetrating and threading through the cyclic segment of the lariat; the resulting material exhibits no detectable biological activity (Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483). Chemical synthesis of a linear analog of MccJ25 yields a product having neither a lariat-peptide covalent structure nor a lariat-protoknot structure; the resulting material exhibits no detectable biological activity (Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483). Production of a recombinant linear analog of MccJ25, by use of a nucleic acid sequence encoding the linear analog of MccJ25 likewise yields a product having neither a lariat-peptide covalent structure nor a lariat-protoknot structure and exhibiting no detectable biological activity.
The MccJ25 lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette is organized as a gene cluster, with gene order mcjA, mcjB, mcjC, mcjD (Solbiati, et al. (1996) J. Bacteriol. 178, 3661-3663; Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662). The size of the MccJ25 lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette is ˜4,500 bp.
The MccJ25 lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette can be expressed in an original, naturally occurring, Mcc25-producer strain, resulting in MccJ25 production (Solbiati, et al. (1996) J. Bacteriol. 178, 3661-3663; Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662).
The MccJ25 lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette also can be introduced into, and expressed in, a surrogate host strain, resulting in surrogate-host MccJ25 production (Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662; Blond, et al. (1999) Eur. J. Biochem. 259, 747-755).
Because the nucleotide sequence of the mcjA gene determines the amino acid sequence of the MccJ25 precursor, and because, in MccJ25 biosynthesis, the MccJ25 precursor is processed to yield mature MccJ25, a change in the nucleotide sequence of the mcjA gene (“mutation”) can result in a corresponding change in the amino acid sequence of MccJ25 (“substitution”). The relationship between a mutation in the mcjA gene and a corresponding substitution in MccJ25 is determined by, and is predictable from, the universal genetic code.
Introduction of a mutation into the mcjA gene can be accomplished in straightforward fashion by use of molecular-biology and directed-evolution procedures known in the art, including, for example, random mutagenesis, site-directed mutagenesis, and gene synthesis (WO 2004/023093; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006; Mukhopadhyay, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; see also Sambrook, J., et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.).
Accordingly, mcjA derivatives containing mutations, and corresponding MccJ25 derivatives containing substitutions, can be, and have been, prepared (WO 2004/023093; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006; Mukhopadhyay, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751). This approach is limited to production of MccJ25 derivatives containing substitutions at a subset of residue positions, since other residue positions cannot be substituted without disruption of processing or export (U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006). Nevertheless, this approach provides a source of MccJ25 derivatives having different useful properties, including, for example, high affinity for a target of interest, high potency for inhibition of a reaction of interest, or suitability for site-specific incorporation of a detectable group such as a fluorochrome (WO 2004/023093; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006; Mukhopadhyay, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751).
In the same manner, “libraries” of mcjA derivatives containing single mutations or small numbers of mutations, and corresponding “libraries” of MccJ25 derivatives containing single substitutions or small numbers of substitutions, can be, and have been, prepared (U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006). This approach is limited to production of libraries of MccJ25 derivatives containing substitutions at a subset of residue positions, since other residue positions cannot be substituted without disruption of processing or export (U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006). Nevertheless, this approach, optionally combined with screening of “libraries” by use of procedures known in the art, provides a further source of MccJ25 derivatives with different useful properties, including, for example, high potency for inhibition of a reaction of interest, or suitability for site-specific incorporation of a detectable group such as a fluorochrome (U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006).
MccJ25 inhibits Gram-negative bacterial RNAP by binding within, and obstructing, the secondary channel of Gram-negative bacterial RNAP (WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762). Through inhibition of Gram-negative bacterial RNAP, MccJ25 exhibits antibacterial activity against certain Gram-negative bacterial species, including the Gram-negative enterics Escherchia coli and Salmonella sp. (Delgado, et al. (2001) 183, 4543-4550; Yuzenkova, et al. (2002) 277, 50867-50875). MccJ25 does not inhibit Gram-positive bacterial RNAP or Thermococcus-Deinococcus bacterial RNAP, and, accordingly, MccJ25 not inhibit Gram-positive bacterial RNAP or Thermococcus-Deinococcus bacterial growth (Yuzenkova, et al. (2002) 277, 50867-50875).
The binding site for MccJ25 within bacterial RNAP is remote from the binding site for rifamycins and from the sites of substitutions that confer resistance to rifamycins (WO 2004/023093; Mukhopadhyay et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751; Adelman, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 753-762). Accordingly, MccJ25 exhibits no cross-resistance with rifamycins and retains full ability to inhibit RNAP derivatives resistant to rifamycins.
MccJ25, as a direct consequence of its lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot structure, exhibits two features useful for drug design and drug discovery:                (1) MccJ25 is genetically encoded (through genetic encoding of a precursor and processing factors; Solbiati, et al. (1996) J. Bacteriol. 178, 3661-3663; Solbiati, et al. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 2659-2662), permitting efficient production by fermentation (Blond, et al. (1999) Eur. J. Biochem. 259, 747-755) and permitting efficient construction of derivatives by molecular-biology or directed-evolution procedures (WO 2004/023093; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/371,736, filed Mar. 9, 2006; Mukhopadhyay, et al. (2004) Mol. Cell 14, 739-751).        (2) MccJ25 is resistant to denaturation and proteolysis (Bayro, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12382-12383; Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483).        
This combination of features is not only useful, but also unusual. Most compounds do not exhibit this combination of features. (Most peptides and proteins exhibit only the first feature. Most non-peptide, non-protein compounds exhibit only the second feature.)
Non-MccJ25-Related Lariat Peptides
We refer herein to compounds according to general structural formula (I) as “non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides.”
wherein:                (i) X is an amino acid residue containing a backbone nitrogen atom;        (ii) Y is an amino acid residue containing a side-chain carboxyl group;        (iii) α is a peptide segment of from about 5 to about 8 amino acid residues;        (iv) β is a peptide segment of from about 6 to about 15 amino acid residues;        (v) there is an amide bond between the backbone nitrogen atom of X and the side-chain carboxyl of Y; and        (vi) wherein the compound has less than 25% amino acid sequence identity with microcin J25 (MccJ25).        
Non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides are known in the art and include the siamycins [siamycin I (also known as MS-271, NP-06, and FR901724; Yano, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 115-120; Katahira, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 121-129; Chokekijchai, et al. (1995) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 2345-2347; Nakashima, et al. (1996) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 19, 405-412; Detlefsen, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1515-1517), siamycin II (Detlefsen, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1515-1517; Constantine, et al. (1995) J. Biomol. NMR 5, 271-286), and siamycin III (also known as RP 71955 and aborycin; Helynck, et al. (1993) J. Antibiot. 46, 1756-1757; Frechet, et al. (1994) Biochem. 33, 42-50; Potterat, et al. (1994) Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 7, 741-743)], RES-701-n [RES-701-1 (Yamasaki, et al. (1994) J. Antibiot. 47, 276-280; Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 3, 1273-1280), RES-701-2 (Yano, K. et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1368-1370; Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220), RES-701-3 (Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220), and RES-701-4 (Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220)], propeptin (Kimura, et al. (1997) J. Antibiot. 50, 373-378), anantin (Wyss, et al. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44, 172-180), and lariatins [lariatin A and lariatin B (Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491)] (FIG. 4).
Known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have lariat-peptide covalent structures similar to the lariat-peptide covalent structure of MccJ25 (Yano, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 115-120; Katahira, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 121-129; Chokekijchai, et al. (1995) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 2345-2347; Nakashima, et al. (1996) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 19, 405-412; Detlefsen, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1515-1517; Constantine, et al. (1995) J. Biomol. NMR 5, 271-286; Helynck, et al. (1993) J. Antibiot. 46, 1756-1757; Frechet, et al. (1994) Biochem. 33, 42-50; Potterat, et al. (1994) Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 7, 741-743; Yamasaki, et al. (1994) J. Antibiot. 47, 276-280; Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 3, 1273-1280; Yano, K. et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1368-1370; Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220; Kimura, et al. (1997) J. Antibiot. 50, 373-378; Wyss, et al. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44, 172-1801; Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491; FIG. 4). The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have lengths of 16-21 residues (FIG. 4). The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides contain either: (1) an 8-residue cyclic segment—with a backbone-sidechain amide bond between the backbone nitrogen atom of Xaa1 and the sidechain carboxyl of Glu8 or Asp8-followed by a 9- to 12-residue linear segment; or (2) a 9-residue cyclic segment—with a backbone-sidechain amide bond between the backbone nitrogen atom of Xaa1 and the sidechain carboxyl of Asp9-followed by a 7- to 12-residue linear segment (FIG. 4).
Known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have lariat-protoknot three-dimensional structures similar to the lariat-protoknot three-dimensional structure of MccJ25. Three-dimensional structures have been determined for several known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides, including siamycin I (Katahira, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 121-129), siamycin II (Constantine, et al. (1995) J. Biomol. NMR 5, 271-286), siamycin III (Frechet, et al. (1994) Biochem. 33, 42-50)], RES-701-1 (Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 3, 1273-1280), and lariatin A (Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491). In each case, the compound has been found to have a lariat-protoknot structure, in which the linear segment of the lariat loops back, and penetrates and threads though the cyclic segment of the lariat (Katahira, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 121-129; (Constantine, et al. (1995) J. Biomol. NMR 5, 271-286; Frechet, et al. (1994) Biochem. 33, 42-50); Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 3, 1273-1280; Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491).
The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides exhibit no significant amino acid similarity to MccJ25 (less than 25% sequence identity; FIG. 4).
The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides are produced by bacterial producer strains: Streptomyces sp. strains for siamycins, RES-701-n, and anantin (Yano, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 115-120; Katahira, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem 4, 121-129; Chokekijchai, et al. (1995) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 2345-2347; Nakashima, et al. (1996) Biol. Pharm. Bull. 19, 405-412; Detlefsen, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1515-1517; Constantine, et al. (1995) J. Biomol. NMR 5, 271-286; Helynck, et al. (1993) J. Antibiot. 46, 1756-1757; Frechet, et al. (1994) Biochem. 33, 42-50; Potterat, et al. (1994) Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 7, 741-743; Yamasaki, et al. (1994) J. Antibiot. 47, 276-280; Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 3, 1273-1280; Yano, K. et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1368-1370; Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220; Wyss, et al. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44, 172-1801), a Microbispora sp. strain for propeptin (Kimura, et al. (1997) J. Antibiot. 50, 373-378), and a Rhodococcus sp. strain for lariatins (Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491).
It has not been possible to date to re-create the lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot structure of a non-MccJ25-related lariat peptide without use of the Streptomyces sp., Microbispora sp. and Rhodococcus sp. producer strains. Attempted chemical synthesis of RES-701-1 yields a product having a correct lariat-peptide covalent structure but not having a correct lariat-protoknot three-dimensional structure (i.e., not having the linear segment of the lariat looped back and penetrating and threading through the cyclic segment of the lariat); the resulting material exhibits only 1/700 the biological activity of authentic RES-701-1 (Katahira, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 5, 1595-1600; He, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 5, 621-626). Chemical synthesis of a linear analog of RES-701-1 yields a product having neither a lariat-peptide covalent structure nor a lariat-protoknot structure; the resulting material exhibits no detectable biological activity (He, et al. (1995) Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett 5, 621-626). These negative results are reminiscent of negative results obtained for attempted chemical synthesis of MccJ25 and for chemical synthesis and recombinant production of a linear analog of MccJ25 (Rosengren, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12464-12474; Wilson, et al. (2003) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125, 12475-12483)
No lariat-peptide/lariat-protoknot biosynthetic cassette for non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have been described in prior art.
As a consequence, surrogate-host expression of non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides has not been accomplished in prior art.
As a further consequence, production of substituted derivatives of non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides has not been accomplished in prior art.
As a further consequence, production of libraries of substituted derivatives of non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides has not been accomplished in prior art.
The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have been reported to have useful properties, including antibacterial activity for siamycins (Yano, et al. (1996) Bioorg. Med. Chem. 4, 115-120; Potterat, et al. (1994) Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 7, 741-743), propeptin (Kimura, et al. (1997) J. Antibiot. 50, 373-378), and lariatins (Iwatsuki, et al. (2006) J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 7486-7491); antiviral activity for siamycins (Chokekijchai, et al. (1995) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 39, 2345-2347; Nakashima, et al. (1996) Biol. Pharm. Bull, 19, 405-412; Detlefsen, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1515-1517; Lin, et al. (1996) Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40, 133-138), endothelin type B receptor antagonist activity for RES-701-n (Morishita, et al. (1994) J. Antibiot. 47, 269-275; Ogawa, et al. (1995) J. Antibiot. 48, 1213-1220), prolyl endopeptidase inhibition activity for propeptin (Kimura, et al. (1997) J. Antibiot. 50, 373-378), and atrial natriuretic factor receptor antagonist activity for anantin (Wyss, et al. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44, 172-1801).
The known non-MccJ25-related lariat peptides have not been reported in prior art to inhibit bacterial RNAP.